Dust

Dust is a high-level interpreted programming language with static types that focuses on ease of use, performance and correctness. The syntax, safety features and evaluation model are inspired by Rust. The instruction set, optimization strategies and virtual machine are inspired by Lua. Unlike Rust and other compiled languages, Dust has a very low time to execution. Simple programs compile in under a millisecond on a modern processor. Unlike Lua and most other interpreted languages, Dust is type-safe, with a simple yet powerful type system that enhances clarity and prevent bugs.

write_line("Enter your name...")

let name = read_line()

write_line("Hello " + name + "!")

Feature Progress

Dust is still in development. This list may change as the language evolves.

• Lexer
• Compiler
• VM
• Formatter
• Disassembler (for chunk debugging)
• CLI
  • Run source
  • Compile to chunk and show disassembly
  • Tokenize using the lexer and show token list
  • Format using the formatter and display the output
  • Compile to and run from intermediate formats
    • JSON
    • Postcard
• Basic Values
  • No null or undefined values
  • Booleans
  • Bytes (unsigned 8-bit)
  • Characters (Unicode scalar value)
  • Floats (64-bit)
  • Functions
  • Integers (signed 64-bit)
  • Ranges
  • Strings (UTF-8)
• Composite Values
  • Concrete lists
  • Abstract lists (optimization)
  • Concrete maps
  • Abstract maps (optimization)
  • Tuples (fixed-size constant lists)
  • Structs
  • Enums
• Types
  • Basic types for each kind of basic value
  • Generalized types: num, any, none
  • struct types
  • enum types
  • Type aliases
  • Type arguments
  • Compile-time type checking
    • Function returns
    • If/Else branches
    • Instruction arguments
• Variables
  • Immutable by default
  • Block scope
  • Statically typed
  • Copy-free identifiers are stored in the chunk as string constants
• Functions
  • First-class value
  • Statically typed arguments and returns
  • Pure (no "closure" of local variables, arguments are the only input)
  • Type arguments
• Control Flow
  • If/Else
  • Loops
    • for
    • loop
    • while
  • Match

Implementation

Dust is implemented in Rust and is divided into several parts, most importantly the lexer, compiler, and virtual machine. All of Dust's components are designed with performance in mind and the codebase uses as few dependencies as possible. The code is tested by integration tests that compile source code and check the compiled chunk, then run the source and check the output of the virtual machine. It is important to maintain a high level of quality by writing meaningful tests and preferring to compile and run programs in an optimal way before adding new features.

Lexer and Tokens

The lexer emits tokens from the source code. Dust makes extensive use of Rust's zero-copy capabilities to avoid unnecessary allocations when creating tokens. A token, depending on its type, may contain a reference to some data from the source code. The data is only copied in the case of an error. In a successfully executed program, no part of the source code is copied unless it is a string literal or identifier.

Compiler

The compiler creates a chunk, which contains all of the data needed by the virtual machine to run a Dust program. It does so by emitting bytecode instructions, constants and locals while parsing the tokens, which are generated one at a time by the lexer.

Parsing

Dust's compiler uses a custom Pratt parser, a kind of recursive descent parser, to translate a sequence of tokens into a chunk. Each token is given a precedence and may have a prefix and/or infix parser. The parsers are just functions that modify the compiler and its output. For example, when the compiler encounters a boolean token, its prefix parser is the parse_boolean function, which emits a LoadBoolean instruction. An integer token's prefix parser is parse_integer, which emits a LoadConstant instruction and adds the integer to the constant list. Tokens with infix parsers include the math operators, which emit Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide, and Modulo instructions.

Functions are compiled into their own chunks, which are stored in the constant list. A function's arguments are stored in the locals list. The VM must later bind the arguments to runtime values by assigning each argument a register and associating the register with the local.

Optimizing

When generating instructions for a register-based virtual machine, there are opportunities to optimize the generated code by using fewer instructions or fewer registers. While it is best to output optimal code in the first place, it is not always possible. Dust's compiler uses simple functions that modify isolated sections of the instruction list through a mutable reference.

Type Checking

Dust's compiler associates each emitted instruction with a type. This allows the compiler to enforce compatibility when values are used in expressions. For example, the compiler will not allow a string to be added to an integer, but it will allow either to be added to another of the same type. Aside from instruction arguments, the compiler also checks the types of function arguments and the blocks of if/else statements.

The compiler always checks types on the fly, so there is no need for a separate type-checking pass.

Instructions

Dust's virtual machine is register-based and uses 64-bit instructions, which encode nine pieces of information:

Bit	Description
0-8	The operation code.
9	Boolean flag indicating whether the second argument is a constant
10	Boolean flag indicating whether the third argument is a constant
11	Boolean flag indicating whether the first argument is a local
12	Boolean flag indicating whether the second argument is a local
13	Boolean flag indicating whether the third argument is a local
17-32	First argument, usually the destination register or local where a value is stored
33-48	Second argument, a register, local, constant or boolean flag
49-63	Third argument, a register, local, constant or boolean flag

Because the instructions are 64 bits, the maximum number of registers is 2^16, which is more than enough, even for programs that are very large. This also means that chunks can store up to 2^16 constants and locals.

Virtual Machine

The virtual machine is simple and efficient. It uses a stack of registers, which can hold values or pointers. Pointers can point to values in the constant list, locals list, or the stack itself. If it points to a local, the VM must consult its local definitions to find which register hold's the value. Those local defintions are stored as a simple list of register indexes.

While the compiler has multiple responsibilities that warrant more complexity, the VM is simple enough to use a very straightforward design. The VM's run function uses a simple while loop with a match statement to execute instructions. When it reaches a Return instruction, it breaks the loop and optionally returns a value.

Previous Implementations

Dust has gone through several iterations, each with its own design choices. It was originally implemented with a syntax tree generated by an external parser, then a parser generator, and finally a custom parser. Eventually the language was rewritten to use bytecode instructions and a virtual machine. The current implementation is by far the most performant and the general design is unlikely to change.

Dust previously had a more complex type system with type arguments (or "generics") and a simple model for asynchronous execution of statements. Both of these features were removed to simplify the language when it was rewritten to use bytecode instructions. Both features are planned to be reintroduced in the future.

Inspiration

Crafting Interpreters by Bob Nystrom was a major inspiration for rewriting Dust to use bytecode instructions. It was also a great resource for writing the compiler, especially the Pratt parser.

A No-Frills Introduction to Lua 5.1 VM Instructions by Kein-Hong Man was a great resource for the design of Dust's instructions and operation codes. The Lua VM is simple and efficient, and Dust's VM attempts to be the same, though it is not as optimized for different platforms. Dust's instructions were originally 32-bit like Lua's, but were changed to 64-bit to allow for more complex information about the instruction's arguments.

The Implementation of Lua 5.0 by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, and Waldemar Celes was a great resource for understanding how a compiler and VM tie together. Dust's compiler's optimization functions are inspired by Lua optimizations covered in this paper.